Alabama-Coushatta's Adaptability and Independence
Introduction
The Alabama-Coushatta Indian tribe, much like many other Native American tribes, faced considerable challenges at the hands of the American government during the course of many years. Not only did the Alabama-Coushatta face challenges at the federal level, but the Alabama-Coushatta also competed for tribe recognition and survival at the state level with the State of Texas. This conflict between the Alabama-Coushatta and the state and federal governments presents years of history that was consumed with struggle, yet progress as well. The Alabama-Coushatta Indians would seek, through legislative action, attempts to raise their tribe’s status. Moreover, the Alabama-Coushatta would develop means of their own via tourism friendly facilities and attractions that they believed would propel them into a greater economic position, with hopes that these moves would help them create self-sustainability. However, the question remains: did the Alabama-Coushatta, through adaptability, achieve what some may call independence, or did the Tribe fall short like most other tribes did in Texas? The Alabama-Coushatta, despite several challenges by the state and federal governments to weaken the Tribe, adapted to these unfortunate circumstances to sustain the tribe’s existence.
The Alabama-Coushatta Indian tribe, much like many other Native American tribes, faced considerable challenges at the hands of the American government during the course of many years. Not only did the Alabama-Coushatta face challenges at the federal level, but the Alabama-Coushatta also competed for tribe recognition and survival at the state level with the State of Texas. This conflict between the Alabama-Coushatta and the state and federal governments presents years of history that was consumed with struggle, yet progress as well. The Alabama-Coushatta Indians would seek, through legislative action, attempts to raise their tribe’s status. Moreover, the Alabama-Coushatta would develop means of their own via tourism friendly facilities and attractions that they believed would propel them into a greater economic position, with hopes that these moves would help them create self-sustainability. However, the question remains: did the Alabama-Coushatta, through adaptability, achieve what some may call independence, or did the Tribe fall short like most other tribes did in Texas? The Alabama-Coushatta, despite several challenges by the state and federal governments to weaken the Tribe, adapted to these unfortunate circumstances to sustain the tribe’s existence.
House Resolution 108
Before understanding how the Alabama-Coushatta sought to achieve greater recognition and self-sustainability, one must find the reasons why the Alabama-Coushatta strove to achieve such situations. In August of 1953, the United States Congress, via House Resolution 108, terminated the trust lands previously granted to the Native American tribes when tribes such as the Alabama-Coushatta were federally recognized, as well terminating the role of responsibility the Federal Government had for the Native Americans.[1] Accordingly, the Alabama-Coushatta, along with other Native American tribes, were stripped of their previous allocations provided by the Federal government, and thus became “ordinary” citizens.[2] What House Resolution 108 ultimately initiated was the policy of Termination by the United States government, which was undoubtedly the government’s way of trying to abandon any “fostering” role they might have for the Natives. After previously earning recognition by the United States government, and there after gaining a reservation to move onto, this new situation pushed the Alabama-Coushatta to press for a challenge. Unlike other histories of Native American tribes, the Alabama-Coushatta did not allow this debacle to crush their Tribe.
Before understanding how the Alabama-Coushatta sought to achieve greater recognition and self-sustainability, one must find the reasons why the Alabama-Coushatta strove to achieve such situations. In August of 1953, the United States Congress, via House Resolution 108, terminated the trust lands previously granted to the Native American tribes when tribes such as the Alabama-Coushatta were federally recognized, as well terminating the role of responsibility the Federal Government had for the Native Americans.[1] Accordingly, the Alabama-Coushatta, along with other Native American tribes, were stripped of their previous allocations provided by the Federal government, and thus became “ordinary” citizens.[2] What House Resolution 108 ultimately initiated was the policy of Termination by the United States government, which was undoubtedly the government’s way of trying to abandon any “fostering” role they might have for the Natives. After previously earning recognition by the United States government, and there after gaining a reservation to move onto, this new situation pushed the Alabama-Coushatta to press for a challenge. Unlike other histories of Native American tribes, the Alabama-Coushatta did not allow this debacle to crush their Tribe.
Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 31
The Alabama-Coushatta adapted to this push by Congress to relieve the Federal Government of playing the major funding role of Native American communities by lobbying the Texas government to transfer land trusts into the State’s holding via Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 31.[3] This transfer of trust was accomplished by means of Alabama-Coushatta and State of Texas officials, which included Governor Allan Shivers, adapting to the circumstances of inevitable termination for most tribes in states other than just Texas, and pursuing a favorable outcome for the Alabama-Coushatta whom were able to keep their land.[4][5] But control under the State of Texas would not guarantee a peaceful lifestyle for Natives, nor would it produce considerable amounts of freedom, recalls Kevin Battise, Chairman of the Alabama-Coushatta Indian Tribes of Texas:
…over the next hundred years, the government-to-government relationship with the Tribe shifted from the federal government to the state of Texas and then back to the federal government. During the time of our trusteeship under the state of Texas we have faced constant overreaching by the state. This was demonstrated by the use of poll taxes, termination policies, edicts to cut our hair and to not speak our language or we would not receive an education. We were managed by the Board for Texas State Hospitals in Austin Texas. We were told by the Attorney General for the state of Texas that we had no reservation and we were nothing more than loose association of individuals much like a fraternity. Monies appropriated when they even were appropriated were subject to severe fluctuations and if that were not enough -- the state of Texas then sought to tax what little if any was left and if the taxes were not paid the reservation would be sold to pay its debts.[6]
Although the Alabama-Coushatta were still able to keep their land after the federal government decided to relieve itself of funding these lands and the resources needed to maintain the land, the tribe still had to face considerable challenges with the State of Texas, who now controlled the funding. As a result, much like it is the story of other Native American tribes, the Alabama-Coushatta had to adapt to the change.
The Alabama-Coushatta adapted to this push by Congress to relieve the Federal Government of playing the major funding role of Native American communities by lobbying the Texas government to transfer land trusts into the State’s holding via Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 31.[3] This transfer of trust was accomplished by means of Alabama-Coushatta and State of Texas officials, which included Governor Allan Shivers, adapting to the circumstances of inevitable termination for most tribes in states other than just Texas, and pursuing a favorable outcome for the Alabama-Coushatta whom were able to keep their land.[4][5] But control under the State of Texas would not guarantee a peaceful lifestyle for Natives, nor would it produce considerable amounts of freedom, recalls Kevin Battise, Chairman of the Alabama-Coushatta Indian Tribes of Texas:
…over the next hundred years, the government-to-government relationship with the Tribe shifted from the federal government to the state of Texas and then back to the federal government. During the time of our trusteeship under the state of Texas we have faced constant overreaching by the state. This was demonstrated by the use of poll taxes, termination policies, edicts to cut our hair and to not speak our language or we would not receive an education. We were managed by the Board for Texas State Hospitals in Austin Texas. We were told by the Attorney General for the state of Texas that we had no reservation and we were nothing more than loose association of individuals much like a fraternity. Monies appropriated when they even were appropriated were subject to severe fluctuations and if that were not enough -- the state of Texas then sought to tax what little if any was left and if the taxes were not paid the reservation would be sold to pay its debts.[6]
Although the Alabama-Coushatta were still able to keep their land after the federal government decided to relieve itself of funding these lands and the resources needed to maintain the land, the tribe still had to face considerable challenges with the State of Texas, who now controlled the funding. As a result, much like it is the story of other Native American tribes, the Alabama-Coushatta had to adapt to the change.
Economic Development?
The Alabama-Coushatta turned to tourism in the 1960s as a possible way to develop economically and further immerse themselves as a Tribe that could separate itself from how stereotypical tribes were perceived.[7] The institution of a tourism complex on the Alabama-Coushatta reservation speaks volumes as to how the Tribe tried to pursue a greater standard of living for their people, instead of relying solely on government funds to fulfill their needs. In a way, the tourism complex served to show how the Alabama-Coushatta tried to distinguish themselves from Texans or Americans and how instead they were an independent sect of people who had a vastly different culture and belief system than their surrounding neighbors.[8] The Tribe’s tourism facility experienced success for the first years of its business, fetching over 100,000 tourists a year interested in experiencing Alabama-Coushatta culture and history. Additionally, the tourism facility allowed many members of the Tribe to obtain jobs for different roles on the complex, which served to chip away at the Tribe’s high unemployment rate. However, due to a struggling economy in the 1970s, visitor attendance dropped considerably, and today multiple previous attractions have closed, turning the institution of tourism into source that does not produce profit, but still gives members of the Tribe an employment opportunity.[9]
Texas Attorney General Opinion No. 17 and Federal Recognition, Again
Further adaptability was put to the test for the Alabama-Coushatta in the early 1980s, as the Attorney General of Texas at the time, Jim Mattox, in Texas Attorney General Opinion No. 17 ruled that the Alabama-Coushatta, which had previously asserted they had the right to hunt and fish on their reservation, did not possess the right to do either because they were not federally recognized and possessed the same rights as an unincorporated association in Texas.[10] The Alabama-Coushatta responded to the Texas Attorney General’s opinion by seeking recognition, again, by the Federal Government of the United States. Federal recognition was a multiple year process, which was finally granted in 1987 by then President, Ronald Reagan, via the Restoration Act.[11] The Alabama-Coushatta teamed with the Native American Rights Fund during their campaign to regain federal recognition, using legislative action to combat the suppressing attempts of the State of Texas, mainly fighting the Attorney General’s ruling that the Tribe was not a special association of the State.[12] The Alabama-Coushatta knew that in order to maintain functionality as a tribe that they were going to need the assistance of the Federal Government, especially after the State of Texas was reluctant to observe the Tribe as a special sect people.
The Alabama-Coushatta turned to tourism in the 1960s as a possible way to develop economically and further immerse themselves as a Tribe that could separate itself from how stereotypical tribes were perceived.[7] The institution of a tourism complex on the Alabama-Coushatta reservation speaks volumes as to how the Tribe tried to pursue a greater standard of living for their people, instead of relying solely on government funds to fulfill their needs. In a way, the tourism complex served to show how the Alabama-Coushatta tried to distinguish themselves from Texans or Americans and how instead they were an independent sect of people who had a vastly different culture and belief system than their surrounding neighbors.[8] The Tribe’s tourism facility experienced success for the first years of its business, fetching over 100,000 tourists a year interested in experiencing Alabama-Coushatta culture and history. Additionally, the tourism facility allowed many members of the Tribe to obtain jobs for different roles on the complex, which served to chip away at the Tribe’s high unemployment rate. However, due to a struggling economy in the 1970s, visitor attendance dropped considerably, and today multiple previous attractions have closed, turning the institution of tourism into source that does not produce profit, but still gives members of the Tribe an employment opportunity.[9]
Texas Attorney General Opinion No. 17 and Federal Recognition, Again
Further adaptability was put to the test for the Alabama-Coushatta in the early 1980s, as the Attorney General of Texas at the time, Jim Mattox, in Texas Attorney General Opinion No. 17 ruled that the Alabama-Coushatta, which had previously asserted they had the right to hunt and fish on their reservation, did not possess the right to do either because they were not federally recognized and possessed the same rights as an unincorporated association in Texas.[10] The Alabama-Coushatta responded to the Texas Attorney General’s opinion by seeking recognition, again, by the Federal Government of the United States. Federal recognition was a multiple year process, which was finally granted in 1987 by then President, Ronald Reagan, via the Restoration Act.[11] The Alabama-Coushatta teamed with the Native American Rights Fund during their campaign to regain federal recognition, using legislative action to combat the suppressing attempts of the State of Texas, mainly fighting the Attorney General’s ruling that the Tribe was not a special association of the State.[12] The Alabama-Coushatta knew that in order to maintain functionality as a tribe that they were going to need the assistance of the Federal Government, especially after the State of Texas was reluctant to observe the Tribe as a special sect people.
Conclusion
To fully answer whether or not the Alabama-Coushatta Indian tribe reached independence is difficult to analyze. The Alabama-Coushatta have a long history in Texas that dates back to helping Texas win its independence from Mexico, and the Tribe is still a functioning unit in the present. Nevertheless, accepting that the Alabama-Coushatta are independent is tough to agree with. However, the adaptability of the Alabama-Coushatta cannot be questioned. The Alabama-Coushatta for many years faced difficult challenges from both the State of Texas and the Federal Government of the United States, and the Tribe was still able to maintain its unity and existence into the present day, something many other tribes across the nation failed to do, especially in Texas.
To fully answer whether or not the Alabama-Coushatta Indian tribe reached independence is difficult to analyze. The Alabama-Coushatta have a long history in Texas that dates back to helping Texas win its independence from Mexico, and the Tribe is still a functioning unit in the present. Nevertheless, accepting that the Alabama-Coushatta are independent is tough to agree with. However, the adaptability of the Alabama-Coushatta cannot be questioned. The Alabama-Coushatta for many years faced difficult challenges from both the State of Texas and the Federal Government of the United States, and the Tribe was still able to maintain its unity and existence into the present day, something many other tribes across the nation failed to do, especially in Texas.
Endnotes
[1] “Alabama-Coushatta Tribal History,” last modified 2012, http://alabama-coushatta.com/History/TribalHistory.aspx.
[2] U.S., Congress, House, A Bill to terminate Federal trust responsibility to the Alabama and Coushatta Tribes of Indians of Texas, and for other purposes. H.R. 6282, 83 Congress, 1 Sess., 1953, 1.
[3] Texas Senate, Senate Concurrent Resolution Number 31, (passed Senate March 26, 1953, passed House April 28, 1953).
[4] Jonathan B. Hook, The Alabama-Coushatta Indians (College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 1997), 75-77.
[5] U.S., Congress, House, A Bill to transfer certain lands to the State of Texas to be held in the trust for the Alabama and Coushatta Indians, and for other purposes. H.R. 6547, 83 Congress, 1 Sess., 1953, 1.
[6] Kevin Battise, "Texas Restoration Act," FDCH Congressional Testimony Military & Government Collection (June 18, 2002), EBSCOhost (accessed April 27, 2013).
[7] John W. Storey and Mary L. Kelley, Twentieth-Century Texas: A Social and Cultural History (Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press, 2008), 22.
[8] Ibid., 23.
[9] Hook, 91.
[10] “Attorney General Opinion, JM-17 Ruling,” General Files, Alabama-Coushatta Indians, Records, James Ludwell Davis Sylestine Papers Texas. Archives and Information Services Division, Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Box 1990/106-2.
[11] “Alabama-Coushatta Tribal History”
[12] “Court Rules,” Native American Rights Fund Legal Review 25, no. 2 (Summer/Fall 2000).
[2] U.S., Congress, House, A Bill to terminate Federal trust responsibility to the Alabama and Coushatta Tribes of Indians of Texas, and for other purposes. H.R. 6282, 83 Congress, 1 Sess., 1953, 1.
[3] Texas Senate, Senate Concurrent Resolution Number 31, (passed Senate March 26, 1953, passed House April 28, 1953).
[4] Jonathan B. Hook, The Alabama-Coushatta Indians (College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 1997), 75-77.
[5] U.S., Congress, House, A Bill to transfer certain lands to the State of Texas to be held in the trust for the Alabama and Coushatta Indians, and for other purposes. H.R. 6547, 83 Congress, 1 Sess., 1953, 1.
[6] Kevin Battise, "Texas Restoration Act," FDCH Congressional Testimony Military & Government Collection (June 18, 2002), EBSCOhost (accessed April 27, 2013).
[7] John W. Storey and Mary L. Kelley, Twentieth-Century Texas: A Social and Cultural History (Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press, 2008), 22.
[8] Ibid., 23.
[9] Hook, 91.
[10] “Attorney General Opinion, JM-17 Ruling,” General Files, Alabama-Coushatta Indians, Records, James Ludwell Davis Sylestine Papers Texas. Archives and Information Services Division, Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Box 1990/106-2.
[11] “Alabama-Coushatta Tribal History”
[12] “Court Rules,” Native American Rights Fund Legal Review 25, no. 2 (Summer/Fall 2000).